Chapter 1: General Introduction to Philosophy

This chapter defines philosophy from multiple perspectives, ranging from reflective self-examination (Socrates) to logical clarification (Wittgenstein) and critical activity (Stroud). Philosophy is both a rational (systematic reasoning) and practical (solving human problems) activity. It is the oldest discipline and the mother of all other disciplines. The chapter briefly touches on the debate about philosophy’s origin—Greece (Milesian philosophers) vs. Africa (Egypt). Key benefits of philosophy include: identifying deception, improving critical thinking, understanding the history of thought, fostering creativity, and making the world a better place. The six major branches introduced are Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics, Logic, Axiology, and Aesthetics.

Chapter 2: Introduction to Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of reality—both physical and non-physical. The term comes from Meta (after) + Physika (physics), coined by Andronicus of Rhodes. Aristotle called it “First Philosophy” and said it studies Being qua Being. Major branches: Ontology (study of being/existence) and Cosmology (study of the universe). Key problems discussed include:

Essence vs. Existence (Sartre: existence precedes essence; Aquinas: existence actualizes essence)
Unity and Diversity (Monists vs. Pluralists)
Change and Permanence (Heraclitus: flux; Parmenides: change is illusion; Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus offered syntheses)
Causality (Aristotle’s four causes; Hume: causality as habit)
Appearance vs. Reality (senses deceive; Plato’s Forms)
Free Will and Determinism (paradox of universal causation vs. moral responsibility)
Mind-Body Interaction (interactionism, occasionalism, pre-established harmony, epiphenomenalism)

The chapter concludes that metaphysics underpins many other fields, including mathematics and science.

Chapter 3: Epistemology

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, from episteme (knowledge) + logos (study). It asks: What is knowledge? Is it possible? Can we trust our senses or reason? The chapter distinguishes three types of knowledge:

Practical (knowing how)
Acquaintance (knowing by familiarity)
Factual (knowing that – the main focus of epistemology)

Knowledge vs. Belief: Knowledge is certain, justified, and true; belief is probable and can be false. Following Plato, knowledge is traditionally defined as justified true belief (JTB) with three conditions: truth, acceptance, and justification. The chapter notes that some philosophers (e.g., John Cook Wilson) argue knowledge is indefinable. Key figures mentioned include Plato, Descartes (certainty, indubitability), and Karl Popper (essentialism).

Chapter 4: Axiology (Theory of Value)

Axiology, from axios (worth) + logos (study), is the philosophical study of value. It has two main branches: Ethics (moral conduct) and Aesthetics (beauty and art). Values are classified in multiple ways:

Terminal (ends in themselves) vs. Instrumental (means to ends)
Functional (utility), Monetary (economic), Social (community impact), Psychological (emotional satisfaction)
Intrinsic (value in itself) vs. Extrinsic (value as a means)
Individual (personal) vs. Collective (societal, e.g., justice, solidarity)
Subjective (mind-dependent) vs. Objective (mind-independent)
Essential (indispensable) vs. Integral (contributing to completeness)

The chapter emphasizes that values are hierarchical and that understanding them helps individuals and societies set priorities for a better life.

KEY NOTES

Chapter 1 – General Introduction to Philosophy

Philosophy = rational + practical activity; mother of all disciplines.
Socrates → reflective self-examination for just/happy life.
Wittgenstein → logical clarification of thought.
Stroud → reflection on general aspects of the world affecting human life.
Njoku → organised body of knowledge; critical examination of beliefs.
Asike → two orders: first (all rational beings) & second (professional, systematic).
Origin debate: Greece (Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes) vs. Africa/Egypt (Onyewuenyi).
Six branches: Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics, Logic, Axiology, Aesthetics.
Benefits: identifies deception, improves critical thinking, aids creativity, makes world better.

Chapter 2 – Metaphysics

Etymology: Meta (after) + Physika (physics) – coined by Andronicus of Rhodes.
Aristotle → “First Philosophy”; studies Being qua Being.
Two main branches:
- Ontology – study of being/existence (essence, substance, accident).
- Cosmology – study of the universe (origin, structure).
Key problems:
- Essence vs. Existence: Sartre (existence precedes essence); Aquinas (existence actualises essence).
- Unity & Diversity: Monists (one reality) vs. Pluralists (many substances).
- Change & Permanence: Heraclitus (flux); Parmenides (change is illusion); Empedocles (four elements); Democritus (atoms).
- Causality: Aristotle’s four causes (material, formal, efficient, final); Hume (causality = habit/expectation).
- Appearance vs. Reality: Senses deceive; Plato’s Forms.
- Free Will & Determinism: paradox – everything caused yet some actions free.
- Mind-Body:
  - Interactionism (Descartes – pineal gland)
  - Occasionalism (Malebranche – God mediates)
  - Pre-established Harmony (Leibniz)
  - Epiphenomenalism (mind = by-product of brain)

Chapter 3 – Epistemology

Etymology: Episteme (knowledge) + Logos (theory/study) = theory of knowledge.
Also called Gnosiology.
Three types of knowledge:
1. Practical – knowing how (e.g., drive a car)
2. Acquaintance – knowing by familiarity (e.g., know Mr. Kola)
3. Factual – knowing that (e.g., every man must die) – main focus of epistemology.
Knowledge vs. Belief:
- Knowledge = certain, justified, true.
- Belief = probable, may be false, based on assumption.
Plato’s definition: Knowledge = Justified True Belief (JTB).
Three conditions of knowledge (Lehrer):
1. Truth condition
2. Acceptance condition
3. Justification condition
Descartes → certainty, indubitability (“clear and evident”).
John Cook Wilson → knowledge is indefinable.
Karl Popper → essentialism (knowledge grasps essence of things).

Chapter 4 – Axiology (Theory of Value)

Etymology: Axios (worth/value) + Logos (study) = study of value.
Two main branches:
- Ethics – moral conduct.
- Aesthetics – beauty and art.
Terminal values – ends in themselves (desired for own sake).
Instrumental values – means to achieve ends.
Intrinsic value – value in itself.
Extrinsic value – value because of something else.
Individual values – personal (e.g., fidelity, honesty).
Collective values – societal (e.g., justice, solidarity).
Subjective values – mind-dependent, relative.
Objective values – exist independent of mind (e.g., truth telling).
Essential values – indispensable (e.g., water).
Integral values – contribute to completeness.
Functional value – utility/workability.
Monetary value – economic worth.
Social value – impact on community.
Psychological value – emotional satisfaction.

Quick Revision – Names to Remember

Name	Key Idea
Socrates	Philosophy = self-examination for just life
Wittgenstein	Logical clarification of thought
Stroud	Reflection on world affecting human life
Asike	First order / second order philosophy
Onyewuenyi	African origin of Greek philosophy
Andronicus of Rhodes	Coined “metaphysics”
Aristotle	First Philosophy; Being qua Being; four causes
Sartre	Existence precedes essence
Aquinas	Existence actualises essence
Heraclitus	Change = flux; cannot step twice into same river
Parmenides	Change is illusion; senses deceive
Empedocles	Four elements (earth, air, fire, water)
Democritus	Atomist theory
Hume	Causality = habit/expectation
Plato	Theory of Forms; knowledge = JTB
Descartes	Mind-body interaction (pineal gland); certainty criterion
Malebranche	Occasionalism
Leibniz	Pre-established harmony; monads
Lehrer	Three conditions of knowledge
John Cook Wilson	Knowledge is indefinable

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